Argument is a core part of critical thinking skills we use in public domain. To persuade or convince others in favour of yours point of view. People present or give pro or counter argument. So, it is essential to know how to present valid arguments.
We know that this is very amorphous concept to grasp. Basically, it is a vital and essential tools one need to master to realise better persuasive power. So, let’s see the techniques of presenting valid arguments.
What does argument mean?
Argument is neither a conflict nor debate, but rather it is a process of persuasion. Though it connotes hostility or resentment, but, in fact, it is a cognitive process. It involves claims, supporting reasons and valid conclusion.
The purpose of arguments and critical thinking isn’t to prove anything but to persuade in favor of truth.
1.Claim or Statement
2.Supporting reasons
3. Logical conclusion
Presenting valid arguments need, at least, above three elements.
Explicit and implicit argument
An explicit argument requires a specific claim and consistent supporting reasons with credible evidences, while implicit argument may be a slogan on board, or a poster with hidden message.
Introduction to Structure and composition of argument
Argument acts as a vehicle of persuasion in favour of your point of views. First of all, it is necessary to know the techniques to express stand or claim to introduce argument.
In reality, it is the “Assertive or declarative statement” that in the language of thinking is called “Claim”
So, if the given claim is used to support argument, it is called supporting valid reasons. Similarly, claim plays other roles in the given argument as stand and conclusion as well.
Hence, while presenting valid arguments, it is equally important to have better understanding of key element — Claim.
Useful Example of argument
a) Annually, the average temperature of May remains around 35 degrees. (Stand)
b) Shockingly, in the last week of April, it is crossing 37 degrees. (Supporting evidence)
c) Hence, in this year, it is possible that it will break earlier records. (Conclusion)
Now, let’s begin to learn presenting valid arguments right from scratch.
Explanation of Statement and stand — basic unit of argument
Proper understanding the properties of statements and stand or position is much needed for presenting valid arguments.
Statement is one or more sentences that we use to state or express something in our daily interactions.
On the other hand, “Stand or position” isn’t the same as we use it in previous case, but only to prove something as part of debate or persuasion.
Statement Vs stand difference
All statements are claims but with assertions either in favour or against. Simply, if you take a stand, you are bound to prove or defend your position.
It means that the burden of proof lies on your shoulder. While, in case of statement, the result would be different. Precisely, to qualify as a claim, assertion is prerequisite.
“A statement may include one or more sentences or vice-versa”.
Understanding simple examples of statements
Examples of statements which are not claims.
- Do you think global warming is responsible for the rise in sea level?
- If you have any idea regarding water management, then let me know.
- You should have saved that person, but you didn’t.
These are some examples of statements which are not claims.
All are used to question or command but not assert anything. Therefore, we cannot call them as claim, stand or position”.
As I mentioned earlier that to qualify as a claim, statement should assert something in either of side. Else, it can’t be termed as claim.
Examples of statements as claim or stand
Global warming will prove lethal for aquatic life in the near future.
Bio magnification is the product of excessive use of pesticides on the crops.
Incidents of malnutrition in the world is ascribed to the rampant corruption and poor delivery mechanism.
Thermal power plants are the biggest source of carbon dioxide emissions.
Frequencies of cyclones are on the rise in the tropical Asia Pacific region.
Poor will be the first victim of climate change.
Inflation will not come down unless government increases adequate supply.
All statements are claims but with assertions in favour or against.
Hereon, you will know the what does claim mean? It is indispensable before writing or presenting valid arguments.
Modal examples of claim, stand or position
In the language of critical thinking, “Claim or position” is an assertive sentence or statement. One uses it to persuade or convince your competitors in discussion in public domain.
Obviously, it is the most fundamental unit or element in the expression of argument.
Meaning of “Claim” used to form argument
In layman’s words, it is a statement intentionally used to assert something in favour or against point of view of somebody. Or, assertive sentence used to convince others. Now, I am going to present the totality of claim or position.
Types and examples of claim or stand
Now, in detail, let’s understand the types, examples and meaning of claim or stand.
You might be aware about the different value such as “All”, “Some”,and Few”.
These words are indicating indefinite numbers about something. On the other hand, scope is much more than numbers. It may be a geographical areas or time.
1.Examples of claim through Numbers
a) Not all people are responsible for lynching incidents.
b) All lynching incidents are targeted at the particular community.
c) In these examples, I have used scope in the form of numbers instead place or time.
2.Examples of claim through Place
- India is a victim of terrorism in the world.
- Sahara desert is sparsely populated region in the African continent.
- Equatorial forests are largely confined in the Amazon basin of Brazil, in the South America.
These three examples indicate the scope of place.
3.Examples of claim through Time
- In the ancient time, there were hardly any trading relations among major civilization.
- Medieval history is well known for feudal system of governments in Europe, as well as in the Indian subcontinent.
Both the statements highlight the scope of time. In the first example, in the ancient time and in second example, medieval history, manifests the scope of time.
Describing Valid and sound arguments
Universally, deductive reasoning or argument is used to derive confirm conclusions.
And, the conclusion derived may be either invalid or valid and sound argument based on the rules of logic and truthfulness of given premises.
Simply, conclusion derived by the means of deductive reasoning can’t be probable but confirm. At the same time, validity and soundness depend on rules of logic as well as nature of premises used there.
Example of valid and sound argument
- All herbivore are grass eater. (Claim)
- Cow is a herbivorous animal.(support)
- So, cow depends on grass for survival.(conclusion)
Technically, deductive argument is expressed by using conditional statements such as, if..then pattern.
Explaining the Validity of deductive argument
Suppose, if the given premises are true of the argument, then, the conclusion reached can’t be incorrect.
Rules and principles of logic state that when the premises or assumptions of arguments are true, then, the conclusion reached is deemed to be true.
For clarity, when the given premises of the argument are consistent with the conclusion reached, such argument are termed logically valid.
But, when the given premises aren’t consistent with conclusion reached, the argument is termed as invalid.
Example of invalid argument
- All mountains are geographical landforms.
- The Himalaya is landform.
- Hence, Himalaya is mountain.
Sound and unsound arguments difference
Furthermore, deductive argument is classified as sound and unsound based on the truthfulness of given premises.
Notably, a valid deductive argument can be either sound or unsound. If all the premises of the given valid argument are true, such deductive argument is termed as sound.
Unsound deductive argument
On the other hand, in case, there are one or two premises are false but other are true, such valid argument is termed as unsound.
Clearly, argument is called sound when all the given premises are true. And, argument is termed unsound when some premises of the valid argument are false.
In short, valid argument can be either sound or unsound depending on the truthfulness of the given premises.
Besides, invalid deductive argument can be easily labelled as invalid due to inconsistent with the rules of logic.
In addition, unlike inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning can be classified as valid or invalid subject to rules and principles of logic.
Apart from these, deductive argument may be sound or unsound based on truthfulness of the given premises.
Identifying Strong and weak conclusions
The nature of derived or inferred conclusion always depends on the nature of supporting reasons. If the supporting reasons in inductive reasoning, are valid and specific, the derived conclusion is termed as more probable.
Because, it is impossible to derive conclusive conclusion in the inductive reasoning. Let’s make clear strong and weak conclusions.
Strong and weak Vs valid and invalid conclusions
Unlike deductive reasoning, in inductive reasoning, conclusions reached could be either termed as strong or weak in place of valid or invalid.
As I mentioned earlier that inductive reasoning can’t be used to derive confirm conclusions but with probability. This is the reason why we term it as strong or weak conclusions.
But, in deductive reasoning, it is categorised as valid or invalid based on the logical principles. Most importantly, conclusions in the deductive reasoning can’t be probable but conclusive or confirm.
Cogent and Uncogent conclusions
Understandably, in inductive reasoning, no conclusion could be invalid but with lower or higher degree of probability.
If all the premises of inductive reasoning are true with strong probability of conclusions reached, it is termed as ”Cogent”argument.
But, in case of weak conclusions with some false premises, such inductive argument is labelled as “Uncogent”.
Simply, strong inductive argument are called “Cogent”, whereas, weak classified as “Uncogent”. Sometimes, if there is possibility of false premises in strong probability, it is also known as” Uncogent”.
Solved Questions on presenting valid arguments,
Presenting valid arguments is not as easy as exchanging dialogues between two people. It need special expertise that I have given in this article. Here, are some useful solved questions for more clarity of this topic.
Q. 1 What does it mean by an argument?
The word argument seems like a condition of conflict or debate in first glance but actually it doesn’t like that.
Argument is a statement or claim with supporting reason to prove or persuade something to someone. To convince someone about something, one should have to provide strong argument with sound reason.
Q. 2 What are prerequisite things to form an argument?
To firm an argument one should have to provide a statement or claim with supporting reason. So, any argument has following three basic components:
I) Statement or claim
II) Supporting reason
III) Logical conclusion.
Q. 3 What are explicit and implicit arguments?
Explicit and implicit arguments are two types of arguments based upon the credibility of evidences to support given statement or claim. Explicit arguments have consistent supporting reason along credible evidences. Implicit arguments are straight forward statements and doesn’t hide any message.
On the other hand implicit arguments are like slogans on the poster and having hidden message.
Q. 4 What is the difference between statement and stand?
Statement is a claim with assertion in favor or against . Stand is an acceptance or taking side of either of claims. Once someone takes stand he or she has to prove or convince others.
Q. 5 What is mean by claims? What are its types?
Claims are nothing but assertive statements given in favor or against to prove or convince about something. Basically, there are three types of claims as ;
I) Claims through number
II) Claims through place
III) Claims through time.
Q. 6 What is the difference between sound and unsound argument?
On the basis of truthfulness of given premises argument are further classified into sound and unsound arguments.
If all the premises of given valid argument are true then such arguments are called as sound arguments. When any one of the premises is false then such argument is called as unsound argument.
Q. 7 What are cogent and Uncogent conclusions?
In an argument when all the premises of an inductive reasoning are true and strong probability of conclusions such arguments are called cogent arguments.
But, In case of non cogent arguments, one or more premises are false and there is less probability of conclusions. Such arguments are nothing but Uncogent.
Empirical research methodology
Deductive and inductive reasoning
Inference and logical reasoning